History is an ideological construction. So is the image the United States try to give off. To deconstruct these two myths, and to give back their place to the Indians, the blacks, the women, and the workers, we have interviewed Howard Zinn, an American historian, retired from his professorship at the Boston University, and author of A Popular History of the United States : 1492-Present, in which he studies these questions.

What were the methods used to build the idea that the United States are a united, classless country, which has not been built upon power struggles?

The United States were 13 separate colonies under England, and they only began to tie themselves together when they began to be very restive and very beleaguered by the British government as a result of high taxes, as a result of stationing of troops as a result of the English control of the colonial government and so they pushed forward the articles of Confederation which created a loose union enabling them to carry on the revolutionary war against England. At the end of the war, when the leaders of the colonies were faced with the prospect of internal conflict now that the war with England was over there were rebellions in various parts of the colonies (one particularly strong in western Massachusetts called Shay’s rebellion), the Founding Fathers decided they needed a strong central government in order to control the possibilities of rebellions (by farmers, slaves, or the conflict with Indians resulting from the move of colonists westward) and which would be able to take care of the economic interests of bond holders and the merchants, so they got together in Philadelphia in 1787 to create a Constitution for the United States of America.

In you book you talk about the idea of a language of freedom and of equality which was developed by the Founding Fathers. This language managed to mobilize the population, to control their unrest and to direct it against the English elite and not the nationalist elite. How was this possible?

We’ve seen lots of examples of this in modern times. It is always easy to deflect the anger of the poor and of the oppressed from internal oppressors and turn it against an enemy be he real or invented or imagined. When you create an external enemy and when you use the language of freedom and of equality as the Founding Fathers did (Jefferson, Adams, etc) in the Declaration of Independence in 1776, and concentrate it on the grievances that they had against the British King and the British Parliament, then it becomes possible to unite people (in this case the colonists) against an external enemy especially if it is obvious that this external enemy (in this case England) was indeed oppressing them, and trying to control them, was shutting the court of Boston when the people in Boston were not behaving as they wanted them to, were levying taxes against them. The grievances against England were so obvious that it was easier to tell the colonists that they were fighting for freedom and democracy and have them forget, at least temporarily, that they had grievances against the people at their head.

Language managed to create a feeling of union and excluded others. Is it still true, who does it exclude.

The declaration of Independence did not take into consideration the rights of black people. When they said that “all men are created equal” they literally meant all men they did not even take into account women. Women were not in the equation. 20% of the population of the colonies consisted of black slaves and they certainly not come under that definition of equality, and nor would the Indians (who were enemies) who were holding on to territories that the colonist coveted. These words of democracy and equality were limited to a certain portion of the population. It is certainly still true today. 
However, it is less true in one sense but more true in another. It is less true in regard to black people because they struggled for their freedom first against slavery then against racial segregation. Although there still is racism and racial inequality in the US, there has been progress towards equality between blacks and whites. There has also been progress towards equality between men and women, if only for the fact that women are now recognized as having equal rights, whereas in the colonial days they weren’t even thought about. As regards to blacks and women there has been some progress made even thought they haven’t obtained equality with white men. 
Today however there are two great flaws in the idea of all people being created equal. The first is economic equality : nothing close to it has been achieved, the gap between rich and poor has grown. This is the richest country in the world with an under class of 40 million people who are barely surviving, who don’t have health insurance and very often have to work to jobs (if they are employed at all) in order to survive. There is no economic equality, that word does not apply to a large part of the population. The word also does not apply to people outside of our borders. The United States’ government feels that it has the right to make war on other people. They do not have an equal right to live.

How does language participate in these current forms of exclusion?

Language serves to conceal what is going on. The language used is a language that is intended to envelop everybody in a common interest, and to make them feel that the policies pursued by the government apply to all. Language like “national security” is thrown out to defend government policy. It does not take into account that there is different security for different people. What is going to promote security for the very rich will not promote security for the poor or even for the middle class. The word like national defense implies that what the United States does with its armed forces abroad is for everybody’s defense. However it may not be for everyone’s defense, but only for the defense of that small number of Americans who profit from the wars that are waged abroad. Such language is used to conceal the classic class difference, class conflict and class interest. 
The language used in waging wars is used to conceal the nature of these wars : the war against the tiny state of Panama under the first Bush in 1989 was called Operation Just Cause. The language “Just Cause” conceals the fact that it was hardly one, and that it aimed only at maintaining American control over an area it had controlled ever since the beginning of the 20th century. Now we have Operation Iraqi Freedom. This language is used to label something in a way that totally distorts reality. Operation Iraqi Freedom is not bringing freedom to the Iraqis. It is bringing devastation, deaths everyday, and razor wire fences around villages. Language is a very important tool. It is ironic that in the age of literacy, that is modern times, where the majority of the population is literate, the people who run society are given an additional tool for control. 

One of the aims of the Constitution was to balance forces. However the only two forces ever taken into account by the Constitution were those involved in the conflict opposing the middle class to the upper class. This then appears in the two party system. How was this put into place? And what are its consequences?

The two-party system rose because there were differences between different interests in the upper classes. The two parties do not represent the rich and the rest of the population. Each party represents one faction of the ruling group in the United States. For instance, before the civil war, the democratic party represented mostly slave owners, the south and the economic interests of the plantation owners. The republican party, and before that the whig party, represented the interests of the moneyed classes, the bankers of the north. We see that today, both the democratic and the republican party are both tied to corporate interests, but to different corporate interests. We don’t have any party in the US representing the working people of the country. The democratic party tries to use the fact that the working people don’t have any party to turn to get the working class’s adhesion to the democratic party by offering them better legislative proposals than the republican party. But only marginally so. As a result a large majority of the American people are simply not represented by the two major parties, that’s one of the reasons why when you have a presidential election, 50% of the population that can vote does not vote. They do not feel that their interests are being served or that either of the two major party candidates represent what they need.

Role of symbols ?

Symbols are, as I pointed out before, the language used to envelop everybody in the idea of a common interest. There’s also the flag. Maybe there is no country in the world where the flag is more omnipresent : as soon as we get into a war, the flag appears everywhere. You walk down in the street in the US today and you will find American flags out. There is the fact that school children, as soon as they enter school, are taught the pledge of allegiance to the country and the regimentation of young people to instill very early on that they must be patriotic (patriotic in the worst sense of the term) patriotic in the sense of giving allegiance to the government and following whatever it does. And there are visual and auditory symbols and the playing of the Star Spangled Banner at every single base-ball game. At every baseball game at a certain point there is a pause and somebody sings the Star Spangled Banner. All these techniques used for enveloping the population in a the idea of false patriotism, supporting the government, confusing the difference between the country and the government so that people who want to support their country in the sense of the people, its traditions, its ideas, its culture are lead to support the government.

Role of law ? Paradoxical, illusion of a population united behind the same law, but at the same time tool in the hands of the oppressors. 

The law fundamentally exists to keep things as they are, to maintain economic relations as they are. The law as an economic instrument is a law for corporations. You will not find in the constitution any previsions for the welfare of the ordinary American. You will not find previsions for economic rights in the constitution. There is not the right to health or housing or minimum income or anything like that, the only economic right in the constitution is given to property holders. In fact the Constitution changes the language that was used in the Declaration of Independence where it talked about the right to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. The Constitution changed that to life, liberty and property. One of the immediate consequences of it was that slaves tried to refer to their right to liberty. Under the constitution the counter-argument was no you’re property. And the slave was property. And the right to property of the slave-holders was considered superior to the right of freedom of the slaves. The laws that have been passed mostly in the history of American legislation and probably since the very beginning of the nation, have been laws that have favored the wealthy classes. The very first economic program presented to Congress by the first Secretary of the Treasury, Alexander Hamilton,  was a program to pay off the bond-holders to raise tariffs to help bring factories, to levy taxes on farmers and the legislation passed by Congress all through the 19th Century was mostly legislation to subsidize the railroads, to subsidize the merchant marine, to subsidize the builders of canals to subsidize manufacturers at the expense of the consumer, and that pattern has continued so that down to the present day with some exceptions, that is occasionally at certain points in history you’ll have a legislation passed that favors working people This happened during the New Deal in the 1930s and in the 1960s. In both cases it happened because in those periods there were great rebellions (in the 30s great labor struggles and strikes, and in the 60s the rising up of black people in the cities). These rebellions brought about some legislation (legislation of the New Deal in the 30s of social security and unemployment insurance, subsidized housing and the legislation of the 60s civil rights act, the rights for the blacks to vote, and health benefits and Medicare for older people. But other than that, legislation has been mostly legislation to favor corporations. A perfect example of it is the latest tax plan of the Bush administration which gives huge tax cuts to the upper 5% of the population and very tiny or no tax cuts to people at the lower levels of income. This is a parallel which has been true under both democratic and republican administrations but is generally under republican administrations even worse for the rights of working people.

Law also participated in repression

The phrase of the law and order. When people have rebelled, when workers have gone out on strike, the police they used against them in the late 19th century early 20th century, the army was called out against the workers, the national guard was called against the workers when they went out on strike and today when the workers go out on strike they always face the police. When any kinds of protestors go out into the streets, you may know they are non-violent, they are immediately met with the police, they are met with clubs and with pepper gas, it just happened in Florida, beginning of December where protestors against the meetings of the great financial mines, the protestors were non-violent, they were beaten, arrested. The military power of the government has been consistently used to defend the rights of property against the human rights of citizens. 
However, repression was not the only response of the oppressors to social unrest: it was a combination of repression and concessions. If concessions don't work, send out the police and the army. Or first crush a rebellion with force, then make some concessions to prevent future rebellions. For instance, in the Thirties, militant labor struggles were met by police and military action. And then, we had the reforms : legislation passed in the Roosevelt administration.

Role of history and of the historian. Popular history is difficult to grasp?

Popular history is not difficult to grasp for the reader. It has been difficult to get into print let us say in textbooks in schools because the textbook publishers are very cautious and conservative they don’t want to roil the waters, they don’t want to sow seeds of descent and of rebellion amongst young people and the result is that you have bland textbooks in history which play down the rebellions of people and play up military victories. It is safer to do that sort of history and it is more troublesome for the writer and the historian to attack the orthodox view points. But history, at least the one I write, has to be, as you put it, “a tool for future fights”. That is why I write history, not as a scholarly exercise, but to give people information and inspiration which will activate them politically.

Attack conservative history : not only is it partially true but also limits the freedom of the population. Idea of one savior, omits collective struggles and the victories of these struggles.

Orthodox history is told in terms of great important people (mostly presidents and sometimes generals) who save us from disaster. The result is to play down the struggles of ordinary people in achieving justice and so the history is built around people who are in power. So much of history is the doings of presidents and Congress and certainly not the activities of ordinary people in defending their rights.
When you read the history of those times in which popular movements have achieved something in spite of the opposition of the state and corporate power (the civil rights movement of blacks, the labor movement of the Thirties, the movement against the war in Vietnam) it does show that the presumably all-powerful, with all their money and military power, are vulnerable to mass movements that are determined, persistent, willing to risk their freedom and their lives. The victories of popular movements do not prove the inevitability of such victories, only their possibility.
The result of this way of writing history is to create a passive population who keeps looking to saviors and looking to the next election, looking to vote another savior into office. It therefore discourages the growth of social revolts which of course grow anyway in defiance of that attempt to limit the consciousness of people about their own power.